On June 12, the Philippines will once again commemorate Independence Day, honoring the bold declaration made by Emilio Aguinaldo in 1898 to break free from centuries of foreign rule. Image Source: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

True independence—rooted in self-determination—remained elusive for decades after June 12, 1898, and continues to evolve today. The ideals of self-governance remains especially relevant in regions like Mindanao and Sulu, where aspirations for genuine autonomy remain central to the broader national conversation.

A Filipino Path of Resistance in Colonial History

For over 300 years, the Spanish Empire ruled much of the Philippine archipelago, which became a crucial link in Spain’s global imperial enterprise.

Claiming the islands in 1565 and formally naming them after King Philip II, Spain’s colonial presence was vast and extractive. The Catholic Church and centralized colonial bureaucracy were its most enduring institutions while Indigenous government systems were dismantled, native languages were suppressed, and uprisings brutally crushed.

Yet Spain’s reach was never total. In the south, the Sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao resisted both conquest and conversion. Islam had arrived in the archipelago centuries earlier, bringing with it systems of governance, trade, and law that were foundational to modernizing governance in the region.

The Spanish launched dozens of expeditions into Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago, but the people of the southern Philippines withstood Spanish aggression through both diplomacy and warfare.

During this lengthy struggle, the term “Moro,” originally used by the Spanish to label Muslims in Iberia, was imposed on southern Filipinos in an attempt to other them. However, “Moro” instead became a badge of honor, a symbol of a people who never bowed to foreign kings.

“Moro” became a badge of honor, a symbol of a people who never bowed to foreign kings

The contributions of Filipino Muslims to the broader independence movement remain under acknowledged, but they are indispensable to any complete telling of the nation’s history. While Sulu ultimately acknowledged the suzerainty of Spain and could not entirely repel Spanish influence, its retention of some independence until the American colonial era is a powerful reminder that freedom had a history before 1898.

From north to south, the archipelago—home to more than a hundred distinct ethnolinguistic groups—never fully surrendered its soul. The Muslim resistance in Mindanao were also joined in history by revolts like those in Ilocos and the Dagohoy Rebellion, which lasted 85 years during 1744–1829.

First Declaration of Independence and American Colonization

The declaration of independence on June 12, 1898, marked the first moment in modern history when Filipinos proclaimed the right to rule themselves in the aftermath of Spain’s defeat in the Spanish-American War.

But the timing was fateful. The conflict merely shifted control of the islands from one imperial power to another. At the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States, which refused to recognize the nascent First Philippine Republic.

The result was the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), a conflict largely overshadowed in Western histories but devastating in its consequences. In just three years, as many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from war-related violence, famine, and disease.

As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from war-related violence, famine, and disease

The U.S. established a colonial government, presenting itself as a benevolent tutor in democracy—but imposed strict control over the economy, education, and political life. Freedom of speech was curtailed, nationalist leaders were imprisoned or exiled, and political power was kept out of reach of ordinary Filipinos.

Once again, Muslim Filipinos would play a prominent role, with resistance in Sulu and Mindanao outlasting the fall of Aguinaldo’s short lived First Republic. Moro fighters continued to reject U.S. occupation, refusing to surrender their autonomy. The brutal Battle of Bud Dajo in 1906—where hundreds of Tausug, including women and children, were killed by American forces—remains one of the darkest chapters in Philippine colonial history.

Despite these atrocities, the south’s fight was often marginalized in national narratives. Remembering the full breadth of this history and the Muslim struggle for dignity and self-determination ennobles the meaning of independence for all Filipinos.

Despite these atrocities, the south’s fight was often marginalized in national narratives.

The Second World War and Final Independence

During World War II, the Philippines faced yet another occupier. Japan invaded in 1941, presenting its conquest as a liberation from Western imperialism. A puppet government was installed in 1943 under the guise of a “Second Republic,” but the reality was starkly different. The Japanese occupation was marked by forced labor, famine, widespread atrocities, and mass executions while Filipino guerrillas sustained a staunch resistance.

Japan’s defeat in the Philippines at the hands of the United States and the Filipino resistance marked the beginning of the end of occupation under three different empires over four hundred years.

Throughout those long centuries, Filipinos consistently asserted their right to self-rule. That right was finally acknowledged by the U.S. on July 4, 1946, when the Philippines was granted full sovereignty in the aftermath of Japan’s surrender. But the choice of July 4 felt inappropriate to many Filipinos—chosen to echo America’s own independence rather than reflect the country’s revolutionary history.

But the choice of July 4th felt inappropriate to many Filipinos—chosen to echo America’s own independence rather than reflect the country’s revolutionary history.

Therefore, in 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal made a critical decision. Seeking to restore national dignity and honor the vision of the 1898 revolution, he officially changed the country’s Independence Day to June 12.

It was a symbolic move that underscored the Philippines’ right to sovereignty as declared in 1898—a right that existed regardless of the decisions of colonial powers.

Self-Determination and Representation Today

Today, the Philippines is a dynamic, democratic nation of over 110 million people. It is marked by linguistic and cultural diversity but also by a powerful shared memory of survival and resistance.

That history gives Filipinos a unique voice in Southeast Asia, where colonial legacies still shape many national identities.

As the first Asian country to wage a sustained anti-colonial revolution in the modern era, the Philippines inspired nationalist movements in Indonesia, Vietnam, and beyond. For many in Southeast Asia, the Philippines is a symbol of what it means to struggle toward a government for the people—not perfectly, but persistently.

Indeed, even as the Philippines asserts itself on regional matters, many Filipinos point inward—reminding that the work of self-determination begins at home. In fact, efforts to promote political representation and indigenous and Moro rights reflect a country still grappling with how to make freedom and representation meaningful for all and worthy of centuries of Filipino struggle.

Many Filipinos point inward—reminding that the work of self-determination begins at home.

The creation of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) stands as a recent significant step toward recognizing the historical grievances and aspirations of Muslim Filipinos.

However, further work remains. The province of Sulu itself voted to remain separate from BARMM, reflecting distinct experiences and representative needs even within the overarching Moro identity.

Navigating the representative needs of these storied peoples remains a domestic priority for the Philippines. It is a challenge that will continue past June 12 when Filipinos north and south celebrate a proud history and an independence earned over centuries of shared struggle.

REFERENCES

Abubakar, A. J. (1973). Persistent themes in the history of Sulu Moros. Asian Studies, 11(1), 119–135. https://tufs.repo.nii.ac.jp/

Blount, J. H. (1912). The American occupation of the Philippines, 1898–1912. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

Britannica. (n.d.). Independence Day: Philippines. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/

Kamlian, J. A. (1999). The Centennial of the Philippine Independence: A Bangsa Moro perspective. The Journal of History, 45(1–4). https://ejournals.ph/

Laqui, I. (2024, September 9). Supreme Court: Sulu not part of BARMM. Philstar.com. https://www.philstar.com/

Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict. (2025, February 17). Philippines: The impact of Sulu’s exclusion from BARMM (IPAC Report No. 101). https://understandingconflict.org/

The Freeman. (2021, December 13). Editorial: Isko should be cautious about pursuing Sabah claim. The Philippine Star. https://www.philstar.com/